Thor’s Cave is the most striking
cave of the manifold valley. It lords it above the Manifold Trail about a mile
SSE of Wetton Mill. From whatever angle you view it, it’s vast maw is an awe
inspiring and slightly unsettling sight. The vast hole in the beetling crag
seems to whisper “I’m here, I’ve always been here.. Enter if you dare!” And
it’s true: Thor’s Cave is an ancient product of the Earth’s contorted history,
a long tale with many facets; hinted at by its bulk and stygian darkness. So
let us use science to unravel its mysteries and origin, before we approach its
myth swathed portal.
Thor’s Cave by the author, June
2020 (see note 2 below).
The limestones of the
Manifold Valley area were formed in warm tropical seas 325-355 million years
ago, during the Carboniferous period. These ancient seas teemed with life: brachiopods, corals, crinoids and ammonites
all flourished.
Ammonite from Thor’s Cave. SWCHS
Geology (2018).
The rocks were laid down by the
deposition of layers of sediment, mostly shell debris and mud, that were later
compacted and cemented by calcite into hard beds of limestone and thin shale.
This layered sequence also contains lens-shaped masses of reef limestone that
lack obvious layering. These reefs were generally formed in shallow water.
At this time, Britain lay close
to the equator, near the southern margin of the ancient continent of Laurussia.
Later, these deposits were buried beneath younger Carboniferous rocks of the
Millstone Grit and Coal Measures. At the end of the Carboniferous, about 300
million years ago, Laurussia and Gondwana collided in the south. The many
folds, faults and fractures (joints) in the area, date from this time. Later,
hot fluids circulating through the fractures deposited valuable minerals.
During the Permian, Triassic and
Jurassic periods the continents continued to drift. New continents formed and
split. By 200 million years ago during the Triassic, Britain was part of
Laurasia, which had almost entirely split from Gondwana and now lay north of
the equator.
During the Cretaceous North
America, finally split away from Laurasia and drifted west. At 65 million years
ago the cometary impact that caused the extinction of the dinosaurs occurred. Before
we get to the start of the geological story as it pertains to Thor’s Cave a
couple of other minor events happened: India collides with Laurasia (50Mya) and
Australia completely separates from Antarctica (45Mya).
At 2 million years ago, the
plateau overlying Thor’s Cave was largely intact. Surface water percolated down
through the Millstone Grit and Coal Measures rocks and into Carboniferous
Limestone. The faults and fractures formed millennia ago began to be eroded. The
sequence of events is quite complex and it is worthwhile to take a couple of
minutes to consider the process.
Underground passages in limestone
areas are made almost entirely by solution rather than erosion. Water picks out
lines of weakness and solution is concentrated at these points.
A bedding plane at the top of a
particularly hard bed in the limestone (or perhaps an impermeable bed of shale
within the limestone) could be more resistant to solution and erosion, so that
rain water percolating down from the surface preferentially dissolves the
overlying limestone.
Water is also able to seep along
the bedding plane, so that the sites where solution is happening are joined up
by tiny channels.
Solution continues and the tiny channels
widen from a few millimetres to a few centimetres. One channel may start to
take more water than the others and enlarges to become a small phreatic cave. Water
flows more easily through the cave, solution is more rapid and the cave
increases in size.
The increase in water flow also
increases solution (and erosion) of the more permeable limestone below, and the
phreatic tube grows in diameter.
Eventually, a cave forms. If it
is entirely below the water table and phreatic solution continues on the floor,
roof and walls and the cave takes on a bigger and bigger, more circular or
tube-like shape.
Rivers running across the surface
of the plateau above the limestone in which Thor’s Cave formed, eventually cut
down below the level of the cave. Coincidentally, the nascent Manifold happened
to cut across the huge phreatic tube of the cave’s north entrance. Now a huge
cave entrance was revealed approximately 10m high by 7m wide! See note 1 below
for sources.
According to Rowe et al. (1988),
analysing data on spelothems from Elder Bush Cave, a cave approximately 100m
away and at a very similar altitude dates for the ‘fossilization’ of Thor’s
Cave can be fairly well determined: ““Analyses of uranium and thorium isotopes
in calcite samples from thick flowstones within a high level relict cave
remnant (Elder Bush Cave) indicated that the formations were beyond the range
of the uranium-thorium dating technique (350 ka). 234/U//238/U
isotope activity ratios approached unity, suggesting that the flowstones may
have formed a considerable time before 350 ka. Palaeomagnetic samples taken from
cores drilled through the flowstones showed the presence of both normally and
reversely magnetized calcite. In some cases reversely magnetized layers overlie
normally magnetized layers. This evidence, taken in conjunction with the
uranium isotope data, is interpreted as indicating an Olduvai age (1.66-1.87
Ma) for some of the flowstone horizons. It is suggested that the cave became
vadose by or soon after 2.0 Ma. The position of the cave near the valley rim
enables an estimate to be made of the maximum rate at which the present valley
has been excavated. This is calculated to be 5.5 cm/ka. Remnants of old valley
floors preserved within the existing valley suggest that downcutting has been a
continuous process. Flowstone from a cave on one of the lower valley floor
remnants (Darfur Ridge Cave) has been dated to 284 +34/-27ka allowing a maximum
downcutting rate since that time of 11.2 cm/ka. The proximity of Elder Bush
Cave to the valley crest suggests that its abandonment marked the onset of the
incision of the present system of dales that characterize the English Peak
District, presumably initiated by epeirogenic uplift or tilting.”
Thor’s Cave had become a ‘fossil
cave’ – a dry and stable cave above the water table and one extremely inviting
to humans from perhaps 200,000 years ago right up to Saxon times.
Thus the spectacular gorge of the
Manifold valley was formed by the erosive and solutional, effects of running
water on the Carboniferous Limestone plateau during the last 2 million years.
When it was first occupied by humans, is a matter of conjecture, but an early
excavation uncovered a considerable amount of evidence.
Information on the first
excavation of Thor’s Cave, by Samual Carrington in 1864-5, is very sparse, due
to no full account being available on the net.
But who was Samuel Carrington?
Luckily I stumbled upon a short biography by Zoeteweij (1986), the following is
adapted from that work.
Samuel Carrington of Wetton,
Staffordshire, son of Samuel and Ann Carrington, was baptised in Wetton Parish
Church on 25 November, 1798 and buried in the churchyard there on 14 October,
1870.
Samuel Carrington from Anon
(1874) via Zoeteweij (1986).
Samuel junior was sent to the
village school at an early age, and then followed his father down the mines, at
Ecton. In his twenty-first year Samuel and his father emigrated to America but
he was dissatisfied with that country and gladly returned home with the
intention of never quitting again his native parish.
By 1823 he was married and had
gained jobs as the village schoolmaster and parish clerk. Carrington, was a
careful collector of Carboniferous fossils over many years. In particular, he
collected many fine and unusual examples of brachiopods, including several new
species described by Thomas Davidson (mostly in 1863); some of these remain
unknown from other localities and with insecure classifications. The value of Carrington's
material lies in the detailed notes on localities and associated faunas which accompany
his fossils, and which Davidson commonly quoted in his publications. Several of
these notes remain with Carrington specimens in the collection of material
figured by Davidson in his classic Palaeontographical Society Monographs, now
housed in the British Museum
A good friend, [Anon (1874)], who
met Samuel Carrington in about 1835 describes him thus: “His studies then were
mostly botanical, and he was accustomed to make drawings of almost every wild
plant he met with. They are extremely accurate, and have the natural air, so as
to be immediately recognised. He was also observant of insects. His geological
and antiquarian researches were only just begun, arid his few specimens, some
of which were then of the wonderful description, occupied a portion of his
pantry. We could hardly foresee that he was to become one of the most assiduous
collectors in England, doubtless so of mountain limestone fossils, and the
discoverer of many new forms, some of which bear his name. Under the patronage
of the late Mr. Bateman, of Youlgreave, he commenced that course of barrow
opening which has rendered both of them well known to archaeologists. Our
friend took a good share of the work; he also made special researches on the
sites of ancient British dwellings at the Borough in his own im mediate neighbourhood.
Under the auspices of the Midland Scientific Institute he extended researches,
which had been previously made, in the floor of Thor's Cavern; many remains of
a Romano-British character were found, though none of primeval man..
He took an interest in the
topography of his own district, unsurpassed as it is in objects fitted to
create it; each rock and tor and cairned hill summit, each dale, fissure, or
cavern, was well known to him, and he took much interest in the derivation of
their name.”
As mentioned above, there is very
little information on the first excavation of Thor’s Cave, by Samual Carrington
in 1864-5, due to no full account being available on the net.
So, let me remedy that for you.
Below is a direct transcript of Carrington’s (1865) account published in The
Reliquary of which I was very happy to discover a copy for sale in Ireland.
Thor’s Cave from Carrington
(1866). Note that in the view of the west entrance at right, a small elliptical
mark at the top of the gully may be seen Thor’s Fissure Cave, the subject of a
future post.
Carrington gives quite a thorough
account of the excavations, contrary to what some commentators say:
“The cave, although partly choked
with mud, has long been esteemed as the greatest natural object of curiosity in
these parts. The interior, even before operations were commenced to clear it,
was both chaste and grand. From the centre a massive pillar arose from the
floor perpendicularly to the roof, where it spread out like a palm-tree, giving
a cathedral appearance, and a greater security to the roof. A second pillar,
called the altar, rose immediately beyond this and reached about half the
height of the other, dividing by their junction the cave into two parallel
passages, the capacious one tending in a straight line towards the east; the
other turning at a right angle with the altar towards the south. The mud or
clay formed a smooth floor, which from the trampling of visitors during ages,
was almost as impenetrable to the shovel as a macadamised road; at the main
entrance it formed but a thin layer, which rapidly increased in depth, forming
a steep slope, that almost reached the roof at the end of the east branch, yet
leaving sufficient room for a man to creep along the tops of the fissures into
which this branch is divided.
About one half of the south
branch was completely blocked up. In addition to the great northern, there is a
large open cleft in the west side (shown on Plate XVII), in a direct line with
the east division, so that betwixt them the interior to a short distance beyond
the altar was well lighted. Beyond them, owing to the rapid rising of the mud,
it gradually merged into total darkness.
Several excavations have been
made in the cave by different persons in the expectation of discovering the
remains of extinct animals without success, still it appeared probable that
something of an interesting character might be brought to light, by clearing
out the whole.
Stimulated by this belief, Mr
Edwin Brown, of Burton-on-Trent, pointed out to members of the Midland
Scientific Association, the possibility of the relics of primitive life being
buried therein, when the sum of five pounds was voted towards the operations,
and it was agreed that the objects which might be discovered should be
deposited in the Derby Town and County Museum. The consent of His Grace the
Duke of Devonshire was obtained, when I, at their request, undertook to
superintend the operations, which accordingly were commenced the second day of
September 1864, and continued at intervals until the third day of October 1865.
Frequently six labourers were
employed, so that the first grant of money was soon expended; but liberal
subscriptions from individuals enabled us to carry on the work, when but little
hopes remained of anything further being added to what already was found. The
form of the Cave will be best understood by the plan given on Plate XVIII.”
Thor’s Cave floor plan from
Carrington (1866).
Thor’s Cave floor plan from Brown
(1865). Original caption reads: Plate 2, Fig. 1 – Plan of Thor’s Cave shewing
the width of the passages at about five feet above the line at which the
excavations ceased.
The letters refer to the sections
on plates 2 and 3.
N. The grand entrance facing
nearly due north.
Q. The Narrow opening in which
occur the tidal marks.
R. R’. R’’. R’’’. narrow fissures
which have not yet been explored. These are filled very nearly to the level of
the top with clay.
S. Unexplored passage filled with
clay.
T. Lofty detached stone, called
the ”Altar Stone.”
T’. T’’. Columns of stone,
reaching to the roof, and dividing the cave into two aisles.
U. The place where the female
skeleton was discovered.
W. The place where the ancient
fragment of deer’s horn was discovered.
The shading indicates the portion
of the floor in which antiquities were found.
Figs. O.N. and P.N. represent
longitudinal sections, in which the dotted portions indicate sand; the diagonal
shading, diluvial clay; and the cross shading that portion of the clay which
had been disturbed by the dwellers in the cave.
Transverse sections of Thor’s
Cave from Brown (1865). Original caption reads:
Plate 3 – Six transverse sections
of the cave, in which the sand, clay and mud are indicated as on plate 2, and
the breccia and charcoal floors by respectively, strong, irregular and diagonal
lines.
The lines exterior to the
sections show the dip of the rock.
A.B. Breccia; sand and mud
C.D. Pebbles; sand and small
pebbles in layers; mud with layers of charcoal.
E.F. Sand; clay and mud
G.H. Stratified sand, which is
agglutinated by calcareous infiltration on the side towards H; clay with
fragments of fallen rock.
I.K. Sand; clay under and
overlying a broken floor of breccia. At a was found the ancient fragment of
deer’s horn.
L.M. sand stratified and tilted at a high angle;
clay with masses of breccia, partly adhering to the side L, and partially
dispersed through the clay in masses.
Carrington continues:
“We began by clearing the floor a
little within the north entrance, where it rose too abruptly for a wheelbarrow
road, consequently we made a causeway on the west side so as to get a level
with the interior, and also more effectually to cast out the debris down the
precipice in front. Another raised way was formed through the west aperture, so
that two sets of men could be employed without hindrance to each other. We had
not been long at work before it was apparent that it had been occupied by man,
by finding the mud intermixed with ashes, animal bones, and fragments of
pottery. Shortly an instrument of green stone, somewhat resembling a Celt,
turned up, then a square whetstone, after that the fragment of a quern, a
sandstone disc perforated in the centre, and an instrument formed by the brow
antler of the stag, cut and perforated much like a whistle. On the east side of
the passage, just before it reached the turning point to the east branch, we
found a circular pavement close to the rock, formed of very thin stones, with
much charcoal and ashes upon and around them. Many instruments, formed of
various materials, were discovered in the wide part, just before we reached the
first pillar. On approaching it we found a bed of ashes at the depth of two feet,
which the labourers denominated the “Midden.” Many animal bones and potsherds
were mixed up in it. On arriving at the pillar, after digging through one foot
of mud or clay, we came upon a bed charcoal which extended from the pillar to
the opposite side, it was more than one foot thick and free from any mixture
whatever; about a foot below this was another bed of charcoal, about the same
thickness as the first; this was intermixed with bones and some fragments of
pottery. Again after digging through another intervening foot of clay, we came
upon a third bed of charcoal, in which bones and pot-sherds were found in
greater abundance than in the other; also some instruments of iron, comprising
a large fork, a broad cutting instrument, and some other implements of the same
material, but of indeterminate use. These alternate beds continued pretty
uniform to the extent of about 9 feet along the passage. Arriving at a large
loose block of limestone, we found that some previous explorer had dug down to
the rock through clay and sand a depth of seven feet, but had overlooked one of
those singular whistle-like instruments, which we found near the bottom of the
original excavation. The next discovery was made near to the altar, which was
that of a human skeleton, minus the head and lower arm bones. It lay on its
left side, with the shoulders to the north-east, in the primitive contracted
position, a very unusual one in the period which the interment will appear to
have taken place [Boyd Dawkins (1874)
suggests that this was characteristic of the Neolithic interment in Europe].
Open burrows, such as might be scratched out by foxes, were round and beneath
the skeleton, which may account for the dismemberment; an upper jaw with one
tooth remaining attached to it, and two ulnae, were found in the sand lower
down, and seven feet from the surface. The Femur measured sixteen inches, and
is apparently female. A “whistle” similar to the others was found in close
proximity to the interment.
Collection of “whistles” excavated
by Carrington, the one 3rd from the left was found with the female internment.
Modern analysis of the “whistles”
from Thor’s Cave identifies them as cheek pieces for use in a primitive, Iron
Age bridle and halter. Indeed, some examples may well be for this use, however
not all the antler examples shown above fit this pattern. Of particular note,
in this regard is number 35, found with the Neolithic, crouched burial of a
woman as the use of horses as beasts of burden and for riding did not arrive in
Britain until the Bronze Age. Photo from Wonders of the Peak (2020).
We had not proceeded far from the
grave, when we found that another and deeper excavation had been made and again
filled up, which was indicated by the mixture of animal bones, broken pottery,
and stalactites from the surface, as in the other. They had penetrated to the
rock through clay and sand, which here was fifteen feet in depth. An instrument
of iron was found at the depth of ten feet, somewhat like a pickaxe. It is a
little more than one foot long, and pointed at each end, and without any
perforation for a helve. Our progress was now much impeded by some very large
blocks of limestone that had fallen from the roof or sides, while the water was
washing in the clay and sand. Some of these were buried, others were partly
bare, but none were found as low as the rocky floor. But little was found of
much importance (with one exception), in the south branch. A few small bones,
and a tooth either of the hog or bear [Brown 1865 determined it to be bear] lay
in vacancies that occurred betwixt the indurated masses of clay and sand and
the rock. The bones of a fawn were found in one of the burrows, which abounded
here in the sand as they did in the other branch. Soon after this division was
entered an object was found, not of much importance in itself, but being found
in a situation so unexpected is calculated to puzzle inquiries how or when it
got there. The object alluded to is a brow antler of a stag’s horn, which was
found imbedded in compact clay, that to all appearance had not been disturbed
since the deposition thereof by water. A description of the superincumbent
materials may serve to shew the puzzling position of the horn. Beneath one foot
deep of mud or clay, a bed of conglomerated gritstone boulders extended nearly
across the cave, being half-a-yard or more in thickness on the left hand, where
it adhered to the rock. In the middle it was dislocated and towards the right
hand side, where the horn was found, it lay in thin scattered fragments, none
of which reached quite to the side. The horn was found at the depth of four
feet from the surface of the clay, and nearly the same distance from the side
of the cave. Now it could be proved that the horn could only be deposited there
by the influx of water whether of a sea or a river, it would be corroborative
of the extreme antiquity of man, but the greatest apparent probability will not
satisfy the inquirer after truth. In this instance a doubt must ever rest upon
every mind as to its real value as an index to that extreme antiquity, partly
in consequence of the scattered fragmentary state of the conglomerate above,
and the possibility that it might have got there by other means, and the cavity
closed up by water trickling down the rock and carrying fine particles of clay,
which in the case of two or three thousand years, and the trampling of man
above, may account for the homogeneousness of the matrix in which it was found.
Many open burrows were found here
in the underlying sand, as in the other part, being secured from the
disintegrating effect of the atmosphere by the great accumulation of rubbish
above, the scratches were as fresh as if but a day. One vault, from its
superior size, we were inclined to attribute to the bear, the lower part was
rubbed smooth by the creatures body, four indentations by the nails in the
upper part of the vault measured across averaged 3 inches, their parallelism in
fours seemed to be the effect of one stroke, the fifth toe being too short to
leave any impression. There are many small rounded perforations in the sides of
the cave, too straight for any animal larger than a badger or fox to enter,
such of them that we found buried in the sand, had in all instances been
directly reached, as if their whereabouts was known before the introduction of
the sand, &c, by the water; perhaps they had been instinctively led by sound
reverberated from them whilst scratching.
We have also noticed before that
the fissures into which the east end is subdivided were not filled to the roof.
It was thought advisable to investigate them, as in all probability they might
have served for the retreat of pre-existing animals. Only a few small bones
were found in the largest fissure, similar to others found scattered near the
surface of the mud in other places. The largest fissure, from the width it
began to attain before abandoned, appeared likely to be connected with one or
more of the others. The work was now given up.”
Human worked horn found below all
other artifacts in the cave and in situ with
the clay, from Carrington (1866). Drawing by Carrington himself.
There is a second text describing
the excavation of Thor’s Cave. This time by Edwin Brown of the Midland
Scientific Association, who was instrumental in monies being found from his own
association, to fund the dig by Carrington. Again, no version of the text is available
online. Having obtained a copy via an antiquarian book dealer, I transcribe
below a description of discovery of the most important find: the ancient
perforated deer horn from the south branch of the cave:
“In the south recess, behind and below any
signs of man’s occupation, the diggers came upon a kind of flooring of tabular
masses of breccia, stretching almost across the cave, and on one side attached
firmly to the wall, beneath this the mud consisted of almost of pure adhesive
clay. In this perfectly undisturbed stratum, to which man apparently had never
previously had access, the workmen came upon the end of a deer’s horn, cut across
by means of some rude instrument, probably a flint saw, and perforated by two
holes, most likely for suspension. This is a startling fact, - an indication of
man’s existence prior to the latter portion of the glacial epoch! I have
carefully examined into the facts of the case upon the spot, and, to my mind,
on the supposition that the cave was really filled with clay by the glacial
sea, the great antiquity of the relic cannot be doubted. Mr Carrington, I may
remark, had no theory to support, indeed he was quite unprepared for such a
piece of evidence, and his long experience in barrow research is an ample
guarantee for his carefulness and discrimination.
May we venture to hypothesise, that men of the
flint age lived contemporaneously in Derbyshire and Staffordshire, with the
glacial sea? I do not know how otherwise to explain the occurrence of the
manufactured horn in an undisturbed glacial deposit..”
The horn found in the clay of
south branch of the cave, from Brown (1865) plate 14. Note that this is drawn
by a different artist.
While both authors tend towards
the horn being found in situ and
undisturbed, Brown certainly argues the case for this most strongly. No C14
dating, as far as I am aware has been attempted on the horn.
How then are we to put a date for
the deposition of the clay layer containing the horn? Fortunately some dating
attempts have been made in regard to the formation of the Manifold Caves. Rowe
et al. (1988) date the final evolution of the adjacent Elder Bush Cave into a
vadose, fossil cave at or soon after 2.0 million years ago. The excavation of
that cave by Bramwell (1964) showed a clear and undisturbed stratigraphy, with
his layers 7, 8 and 9. These consisted of 9: red cave earth of stiff red clay;
8: Flaky stalagmite, a limited deposit found interstratified with layer 7 [but
also shown in his Fig 2. as intrusive into layer 9] found in certain areas of
the cave assumed to be ‘wet patches’; 7: Sandy cave earth. It was so named
because it contained bones. The absence of clay binding the sand particles
indicates dry conditions and indicates the sand probably has an aeolian origin.
Thus as the same sequence that is
found in the Elder Bush Cave occurs in Thor’s Cave, we may hypothesise that the
layer in which the horn was found is of the same age as some part of Bramwell’s
layer 9. This has been accepted by modern authors, such as Lewis et al. (2011)
as of Early Devensian age, or about 95-85Ka in MIS5b.
Admittedly, this is a stretch as only one other
confirmed instance of man’s presence has been found in the UK of this age. The
site in question is in Kent, where Wenban-Smith et al. (2010) found a lithic
assemblage attributed to Neanderthals. However there was a similarly
anomalously aged bone implement of similar age found in the Elder Bush Cave
from the top of layer 9, namely a bone point made on a reindeer metacarpal
worked to a point (see my post on Elder Bush Cave here).
Bramwell (1950) comments on the
horn: “The most, interesting find in Thor’s Cave was a piece of roughly sawn
deer antler pierced by two holes, as though for suspension. As this was dug
from clay below the breccia, it seems to require a late Palaeolithic date. In
view of undoubted late Palaeolithic material from Thor’s Fissure Cave and Elder
Bush Cave, this would not be so unlikely.”
Therefore, Carrington’s
excavation of Thor’s Cave, may actually have found what he was looking for:
evidence of the extreme antiquity of man in White Peak, less than a mile from
his house!
References
Anon. (1874) Memoir of Samuel
Carrington, 2pp., + appendices. [Only copy seen (Figs.1-5) is in Stoke-on-Trent
City Libraries, Horace Barks Reference Library*;
undated, but internal evidence
suggests 1874.]
Bramwell, D. (1950) Cave Dwellers and Dens of Late
Pleistocene Animals in the Manifold Valley, Staffordshire. Cave Research Group
of Gt. Britain (CRG): Transactions Vol 1 (4) p43-52
Bramwell, D. (1964). The
Excavations at Elder Bush Cave, Wetton, Staffs. North Staffordshire journal of
field studies vol. 4, Page(s) 46-60
Brown, E. (1865). “The Exploration of Thor’s Cave"
Transactions of the Midland Scientific Association for 1865. Pages 1-6, 19-30
and 70-71,
Dawkins, B. (1874). Cave Hunting,
MacMillan and Company.
Carrington, S. (1866). “Account
of the Excavations and Discoveries in Thor’s Cave, Wetton Dale”, The Reliquary,
Vol. 6, April 1865-66
Lewis, S. G., Ashton N. and R
Jacobi (2011). Testing Human Presence During the Last Interglacial (MIS5e): A
Review of the British Evidence in Developments in Quaternary Science vol. 14 p.
131. N. Ashton, S. Lewis and C. Stringer eds.
Rowe, P, Austin, T, and Atkinson,
T. (1988). Quaternary evolution of the British south Pennines from uranium
series and palaeomagnetic data. Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg. Vol. 111:1 p97-106
Wenban‐Smith, F.F.,
Bates, M.R. and Schwenninger, J.L., 2010. Early Devensian (MIS 5d–5b)
occupation at Dartford, southeast England. Journal of Quaternary Science,
25(8), pp.1193-1199.
Zoeteweij, F. (1986). Collections, Collectors and Museums of Note,
No. 49 Samuel Carrington (1798-1870). Geological Curator, Vol.4, No.5,
pp.281-286
Notes
1. The Geological information on the Manifold Valley and
Thor’s Cave was drawn from numerous websites. For those interested, more
information can be found at the following:
2. Thor’s Cave is of course in
Staffordshire, but for the purpose of this series I have appropriated a number
of caves from adjacent counties to broaden the perspective of their occupation.
